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Sneaky Clocks: Revealing Einstein's Relativity in an Atomic Playground

Reconciling Quantum Mechanics and General Relativity

Physicists have long wrestled with a fundamental scientific paradox: How can quantum mechanics, which governs subatomic particles, be reconciled with general relativity, the framework of cosmic-scale phenomena?

Optical Lattice Clocks: A Precision Instrument

Recognized for its unmatched precision, the optical lattice clock is emerging as a vital instrument in overcoming this challenge. It utilizes a lattice potential, formed by laser beams, to trap atoms, which are then manipulated with rigorous control over quantum coherence and interactions as dictated by quantum mechanics.

Gravitational Redshift and Optical Lattice Clocks

At the same time, Einstein's general relativity dictates that time progresses more slowly in stronger gravitational fields. This phenomenon, known as gravitational redshift, induces minute shifts in atoms' internal energy states based on their gravitational position, altering their oscillations—the fundamental mechanism governing time in optical lattice clocks.

By analyzing minute frequency shifts in these ultra-precise clocks, researchers can investigate the interplay between quantum systems and Einstein's theory of relativity.

Investigating Relativistic Effects in Many-Body Quantum Systems

Although relativistic effects in single atoms are well understood, their influence in many-body quantum systems—where interactions and entanglement arise—remains an open question.

Experimental Protocols and Collaborations

Taking a significant step forward, researchers led by JILA and NIST Fellows, including University of Colorado Boulder professors Jun Ye and Ana Maria Rey, in collaboration with institutions such as Lelbnitz University Hannover, the Austrian Academy of Sciences, and the University of Innsbruck, have introduced experimental protocols to study relativistic phenomena, such as gravitational redshift, in the context to quantum entanglement and interactions in optical atomic clocks.

Findings on Atomic Synchronization and Quantum Entanglement

Their research uncovered how the interplay between gravitational influences and quantum interactions gives rise to unexpected phenomena, including atomic synchronization and quantum entanglement among particles.

The outcomes of this investigation are detailed in physical Review Letters.

"Our research reveals that atomic interactions can synchronize their behavior, forming a unified system rather than oscillating independently under gravitational redshift," explains Dr. Anjun Chu, former JILA graduate student and current postdoctoral researcher at the University of Chicago, as well as the paper's first author.

"This is particularly exciting as it provides direct evidence of the intricate relationship between quantum interactions and gravitational effects."

"Physicists have long been intrigued by the complex relationship between general relativity (GR) and quantum entanglement," Rey notes.

Detecting General Relativity Corrections in Atomic Clocks

Detecting GR corrections in typical laboratory experiments is challenging due to their minuscule magnitude. However, advancements in atomic clock precision are now making these effects measurable.

By simultaneously probing numerous atoms, these clocks serve as a distinctive platform for investigating the interplay between general relativity and many-body quantum physics.

The Role of Photon Exchange in Optical Cavities

In this study, we examined a system where atoms interact through photon exchange within an optical cavity.

Intriguingly, our findings, reveal that while individual atomic interactions may not directly impact clock ticking, their collective influence on gravitational redshift can substantially alter system dynamics and even induce quantum entanglement among atoms.

Distinguishing Gravitational Effects

To investigate this phenomenon, the team developed novel protocols to examine the interplay between gravitational redshift and quantum behavior.

Overcoming External Noise Interference

Their first challenge was to develop techniques to distinctly characterize gravitational effects in an optical lattice clock, mitigating interference from external noise sources.

The researchers employed a dressing protocol, a technique that uses laser light to manipulate the internal states of particles. While commonly utilized in quantum optics, this marks one of its first applications in refining gravitational effects.

The Mass-Energy Equivalence and Gravitational Redshift

This tunability arises from mass-energy equivalence, as described by Einstein's renowned equation E=mc² , implying that variations in a particle's internal energy induce slight changes in its mass. Consequently, an atom in an excited state possesses a marginally greater mass than its ground-state counterpart.

Gravitational redshift arises from mass differences associated with gravitational potential energy. The dressing protocol offers a versatile mechanism to regulate this mass disparity, and thereby the redshift effect, by coherently controlling particles in a superposition of two internal energy levels.

Rather than existing solely in the ground or excited state, particles can be coherently manipulated to simultaneously occupy both states, with a continuously adjustable probability distribution. This approach grants unprecedented control over internal states, allowing researchers to precisely regulate gravitational effects.

This approach enabled researchers to isolate true gravitational redshift effects from extraneous influences such as magnetic field gradients within the system.

"Adjusting the superposition of a particle's internal states directly influences the perceived magnitude  of gravitational effects," explains JILA graduate student Maya Miklos. "This provides an innovative approach to investigating mass-energy equivalence at the quantum scale."

Seeing Synchronization and Entanglement

After formulating a strategy to differentiate true gravitational influences, the team examined their role in quantum many-body system, utilizing photon-mediated interactions facilitated by an optical cavity.

Photon-Mediated Interactions and Atomic Synchronization

An atom in an excited state can transition back to the ground state by emitting a photon into the cavity. This photon may then be absorbed by another ground-state atom, transferring the exitation.

This form of energy transfer, known as photon-mediated interactions, allows particles to engage in dynamic interactions without requiring physical proximity.

These quantum interactions can rival gravitational influences on individual atoms within the cavity. Ordinarily, particles at varying elevations in a gravitational field experience subtle shifts in their oscillation due to gravitational redshift. In the absence of inter-particle interactions, these frequency variations lead to gradual desynchronization.

Counteracting Gravitational Redshift Through Synchronization

When photon-mediated interactions were introduced, a remarkable phenomenon emerged—particles spontaneously synchronized, overriding the gravitationally induced frequency shifts that would otherwise drive them out of phase.

"It's truly intriguing," remarks Chu. "Each particle behaves as an independent clock, yet their interactions induce synchronization, counteracting the gravitational forces that would otherwise disrupt their timing."

This synchronization demonstrated an intriguing interplay between quantum interactions and gravitational effects, with the former mitigating the desynchronization induced by gravitational redshift.

Quantum Entanglement as a Consequence of Synchronization

This synchronization was not merely an anomaly—it actively facilitated the emergence of quantum entanglement, wherein the states of interconnected particles became intrinsically correlated.

Intriguingly, the researchers discovered that the rate of synchronization could act as an indirect indicator of entanglement, providing a novel means to quantify the interaction between these two effects.

"Synchronization serves as the frist observable phenomenon demonstrating the intricate interplay between gravitational redshfit and quantum interactions," notes JILA postdoectoral researcher Dr. Kyungtae Kim. "It provides a unique lens into the delicate balance between these fundamental forces."

Implications for Future Research

While this study provided the first insights into the interaction between these fields, the newly developed protocols offer a pathway to higher experimental precision, benefiting areas such as quantum computing and fundamental physics research.

"Observing entanglement facilitated by general relativity would mark a significant milestone, and our theoretical projections suggest that this goal is attainable with existing or forthcoming experimental setups," says Rey.

Future research may probe how particle interactions evolve in distinct environments or how they modulate gravitational influences, further bridging the gap between quantum mechanics and general relativity.

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New Study Unveils Overlooked Nuclear Force That Stabilizes Matter

Kyushu University Researchers Discover  Three-Nucleon Force's Role in Nuclear Stability

Researchers at Kyushu University, have uncovered how the three-nucleon force within an atom's nucleus influences nuclear stability. Their study in Physics Letter B sheds light on why certain nuclei are more stable and offers insights into astrophysical processes, such as the formation of heavy elements in stars.

The Nucleus: The Heart of Atomic Matter

Atoms, the fundamental constituents of matter, serve as the building blocks of the universe. The majority of an atom's mass is concentrated in its minuscule nucleus, which consists of protons and neutrons, collectively termed nucleons. For over a century, a key focus in nuclear physics has been understanding the interactions between these nucleons that ensure nuclear stability and maintain a low-energy state.

The Two-Nucleon Force: The Strongest Nuclear Interaction

The strongest nuclear interactions is the two-nucleon force, which acts as an attractive force at long range, drawing two nucleons together, while repelling them at short range to prevent excessive proximity.

The Complexity of the Three-Nucleon Force

"Researchers have gained a solid understanding of the two-nucleon force and its influence on nuclear stability," say Tokuro Fukui, Assistant Professor at Kyushu University's Faculty of Arts and Science. "However, the three-nucleon force, involving interactions among three nucleons at once, remains far more complex and not yet fully understood."

Illustrating the Nuclear Forces with a Game of Catch

Fukui illustrates nuclear forces by comparing them to a game of catch. In the case of the two-nucleon force, two nucleons interact by tossing a ball, which represents a subatomic particle called a meson. The meson's mass varies, with the pion, the lightest meson, being responsible for the long-range attraction between nucleons.

The Three-Nucleon Force: A More Complex Interaction

In the case of the three-nucleon force, three nucleons interact, passing mesons or balls between them. Simultaneously, while tossing and catching the mesons, the nucleons also spin and orbit within the nucleus.

Recent Research Highlights the Importance of the Three-Nucleon Force

While the three-nucleon force has traditionally been regarded as less significant than the two-nucleon force, recent research is increasingly recognizing its importance. This new study elucidates the mechanism by which the three-nucleon force contributes to nuclear stability, showing that its influence strengthens as the nucleus increases in size.

Advanced Research Methods: Supercomputer Simulations and Nuclear Theory

Through their research, Fukui and his team used advanced nuclear theory and supercomputer simulations to analyze the exchange of pions between three nucleons. They identified that two pions exchanged between nucleons result in restricted movement and spin, leaving only four potential combinations. Their calculations revealed that the "rank-1 component" among these combinations is vital for nuclear stability.

Spin-Orbit Splitting and Nuclear Stability

Fukui explains that the increased stability arises from the enhancement of a phenomenon known as spin-orbit splitting. When nucleons spin and orbit in the same direction, their alignment lowers the system's energy. However, when they spin and orbit in opposite directions, the nucleons occupy a higher energy state. This results in nucleons "splitting" into distinct energy levels, contributing to the stability of the nucleus.

Simulations Show the Greater Impact on Nucleons with Opposing Spins

According to Fukui, their supercomputer simulations indicated that the three-nucleon force increases the energy of nucleons with aligned spins and orbits, but has an even greater effect on nucleons with opposing spins and orbits. This results in a broader energy gap between shells, further stabilizing the nucleus.

Implications for Heavier Elements and Fusion Processes

This effects is particularly notable in heavier nuclei with a higher number of nucleons. In carbon-12, the heaviest element studied with 12 nucleons, the three-nucleon force led to a 2.5-fold expansion of the energy gap.

Fukui states, "The effect is so pronounced that it almost equals the influence of the two-nucleon force. We foresee a stronger impact in heavier elements beyond carbon-12, which we aim to study in our upcoming research."

The Role of Three-Nucleon Force in Element Formation in Stars

The three-nucleon force may be crucial in explaining how heavy elements emerge from the fusion of lighter elements in stars. As this force intensifies in heavier nuclei, it enhances their stability by widening the energy gaps between nuclear shells.

Enhanced Stability and Its Impact on Neutron Capture

This enhanced stability makes it harder for the nucleus to capture additional neutrons, a critical step in forming heavier elements. When the nucleus contains a "magic number" of protons or neutrons that completely fill its shells, it becomes exceptionally stable, further obstructing the fusion process.

Predicting Heavy Element Formation: The Importance of Energy Gaps

"For scientists trying to predict how heavy elements form, knowing the energy gap between unclear shells is critical—something that cannot be done without understanding the three-nucleon force." explains Fukui. "For magic number nuclei, this may require generating immense energy."

Quantum Entanglement of Nucleons: A Surprising Discovery

In their final discovery, the researchers identified another unexpected impact of the three-nucleon force on nucleon spins. With just the two-nucleon force, the spin states of each nucleon can be measured separately. However, the three-nucleon force induces quantum entanglement, where the spins of two of the three nucleons exist in both states simultaneously until observe.

Quantum Entanglement and Its Implications for Quantum Computing

"Similar to electrons, nucleons can exhibit quantum entanglement, although the greater mass of nucleons introduces distinct challenges. These variations could significant implications for future research, particularly in advancing technologies like quantum computing," concludes Fukui.

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Faster Than Light? Investigating Communication Between Entangled Particles

Introduction to Quantum Entanglement

Entanglement in quantum mechanics is often regarded as one of its most perplexing phenomena. At first glance, it seems to allow particles to interact over great distances instantaneously, seemingly defying the speed of light. However, although entangled particles are linked, they do not inherently exchange information with each other.

The Nature of Particles in Quantum Mechanics

Particles as Probabilistic States

In quantum mechanics, the concept of a particle is quite different from what we intuitively understand. Rather than being a fixed, solid object, a particle is more accurately described as a cloud of probabilistic states, outlining where we may observe it when measured. Until we perform an observation, however, we cannot precisely determine all its characteristics.

Quantum States and Their Indeterminate Probabilities

Quantum states represent these indeterminate probabilities. In certain scenarios, two particles can be connected through quantum mechanics, where a unified mathematical expression accounts for the probabilities of both particles at the same time, a condition known as entanglement.

Understanding Quantum Entanglement

Instantaneous Communication Between Entangled Particles

When particles are in an entangled quantum state, measuring the properties of one particle immediately reveals the state of the other. Take quantum spin as an example:a property of subatomic particles like electrons, where the spin can be either up or down. Upon entangling two electrons, their spins become correlated, and we can configure the entanglement so that their spins are always opposite.

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The Role of Measurement in Determining Spin

If we measure the spin of the first particle and find it pointing up, this gives us immediate knowledge about the second particle. Given that the quantum state of the two particles was carefully entangled, we can be certain that the second particle's spin must be pointing down. As soon as one particle's state is revealed, the state of the other is simultaneously determined.

The Mystery of Communication Beyond Light Speed

Can Communication Happen Faster Than Light?

What if the second particle were located on the opposite side of the room, or even across the galaxy? Quantum theory suggests that once the state of the first particle is determined, the second particle instantaneously "knows" its spin. This phenomenon implies the potential for communication that exceeds the speed of light.

The Paradox and Resolution of Faster-Than-Light Communication

The solution to this apparent paradox lies in examining the timing of events and, crucially, understanding who possesses knowledge at each moment.

Understanding the Flow of Information in Quantum Measurements

Who Knows What and When?

Suppose I am conducting the measurement of particle A, while you are handling particle B. Upon my measurement, i can determine with certainty the spin of your particle. However, you remain unaware of this until you perform your own measurement or I inform you. In both scenarios, no information travels faster than light—either you measure locally or await my communication.

No Instant Knowledge: The Limit of Quantum Communication

Although the two particles are interconnected, no one gains prior knowledge. I can determine the behavior of your particle, but i can only communicate this information at a speed slower than light—or you must make your own discovery.

Conclusion: The Speed of Entanglement vs. The Speed of Information

While entanglement occurs instantly, the process of revealing its effects is not immediate. We must rely on tradition, sub-light-speed communication to fully understand the correlations dictated by quantum entanglement.

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Scientists Explore the Speed of Quantum Entanglement at the Attosecond Scale

Understanding Quantum Theory

Quantum theory explains phenomena that occur over extraordinarily brief time scales, Historically, such occurrences were seen as 'instantaneous': An electron circles an atomic nucleus—only to be abruptly ejected by a flash of light. Two particles interact—then suddenly become 'quantum entangled.'

New Frontiers in Quantum Research

Today, it is possible to explore the temporal progression of these seemingly 'instantaneous' effects. In collaboration with Chinese research teams, TU Wien (Vienna) has developed simulations that allow for the study of ultrafast processes. These simulations enable researchers to observe how quantum entanglement forms on an attosecond time scale.

The outcomes of the study have been published in the journal Physical Review Letters.

Two Particles Forming One Quantum System

In the case quantum entanglement between two particles, separate descriptions are ineffective. Even with perfect understanding of the two-particle system, one cannot clearly define the state of a single particle.

"You might contend that the particles do not possess individual traits; instead, they have collective properties. Mathematically, they are tightly bound, even if they occupy completely different spaces," explains Prof. Joachim Burgdörfer from TU Wien's Institute of Theoretical Physics.

In experiments involving entangled quantum particles, researchers typically aim to preserve quantum entanglement for extended durations, particularly for applications in quantum cryptography or quantum computing.

"In a different vein, we are interested in understanding how this entanglement originates and which physical effects are relevant at extremely short times scales," notes Prof. Iva Březinová, one of the authors of the current publication.

The Ejection of Electrons

One electron speeds away, leaving one bound to the atom

The researchers examined atoms exposed to an extremely intense, high-frequency laser pulse. This pulse ejects an electron from the atom, causing it to escape. If the radiation intensity is sufficient, a second electron may also be impacted, transitioning into a higher energy state and subsequently orbiting the atomic nucleus along a different trajectory.

As a result, after the laser pulse, one electron is ejected while the other remains with the atom, possessing an unspecified energy.

"We can establish that these two electrons are now quantum entangled," remarks Burgdörfer. "They must be analyzed as a pair, and conducting a measurement on one will simultaneously yield information about the other."

The Concept of 'Birth Time'

The electron is unaware of the specific moment of its 'birth'

The research team has successfully demonstrated, through a specialized measurements protocol utilizing two distinct laser beams, that it is feasible to establish a connection between the 'birth time' of the escaping electron—specifically, the moment it departed from the atom—and the state of the electron that remains. These two characteristics are quantum entangled.

According to Burgdörfer, "This implies that the birth time of the departing electron is fundamentally unknown. One could argue that the electron itself is unaware of when it separated from the atom. It exists in a quantum superposition of various states, having left the atom at both an earlier and a later moment in time."

Which point in time it 'really' was cannot be definitively addressed—the 'actual' answer simply does not exist in the context of quantum physics. Nonetheless, the answer is quantum—mechanically connected to the uncertain state of the electron remaining with the atom. If the remaining electron occupies a higher energy state, it suggests that the departing electron was more likely to have been ejected earlier; conversely, if the remaining electron is in a lower energy state, the 'birth time' of the escaping electron would be likely later—averaging about 232 attoseconds.

The Significance of Attoseconds

This duration is nearly beyond comprehension: an attosecond equals one billionth of a billionth of a second.

"However, these distinctions can not only be computed but also experimentally measured," explains Burgdörfer. "We are currently in discussions with research teams eager to validate such ultrafast entanglements."

Rethinking 'Instantaneous' Phenomena

The time structure underlying 'instantaneous' phenomena

This research demonstrates that considering quantum effects merely as 'instantaneous' is insufficient. Significant correlations emerge only when one can discern the ultra-short time scales associated with these effects.

"The electron doesn't merely jump out to the atom; it propagates as a wave that gradually emanates from the atom, a process that requires time," says Březinová. "Entanglement occurs during this phase, allowing for precise measurements later through the observation of both electrons.

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