nuclear physics pion reaction breakthrough

Nuclear Physics Breakthrough: New Calculation Links Disparate Pion Reactions

Introduction to the Groundbreaking Lattice QCD Calculation

A physicist at the early stage of their career has made a mathematical breakthrough linking timelike and spacelike from factors, offering new pathways to understanding force. This innovative lattice QCD calculation establishes a connection between two  previously unrelated  reactions involving the pion, the lightest particle influenced by the strong interaction.

Felipe Ortega-Gama's Early research and Mentorship at Jefferson Lab

Undergraduate Research and Mentorship at Tecnológico de Monterrey

During his undergraduate studies at Tecnológico de Monterrey, Mexico, Felipe Ortega-Gama participated in the U.S. Department of Energy's Science Undergraduate Laboratory Internships program at the Thomas Jefferson National Accelerator Facility. Under the mentorship of Raúl Briceño, a staff scientist at the lab's Center for Theoretical and Computational Physics and a professor at Old Dominion University, Ortega-Gama contributed to research in theoretical physics.

Introduction to Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD)

Under the guidance of Raúl Briceño, he was introduced to quantum chromodynamics (QCD), the theoretical framework describing the strong interaction. This force is responsible for binding quarks and gluons into protons, neutrons, and other hadronic particles. Researchers use lattice QCD, a numerical approach to solving QCD equations, to generate predictions that aid in analyzing experimental data on hadronic interactions.

The Pivotal Moment in Ortega-Gama's QCD Journey

A Moment of Realization for Ortega-Gama

"Raúl Briceño presented a plot displaying both theoretical calculations and experimental measurements of various particle masses, all closely aligned," Ortega-Gama recalled amazed by the precision of these predictions. "That was the moment I realized that QCD could accurately forecast particle properties with remarkable accuracy."

This pivotal moment sparked Ortega-Gama's interest in QCD and led him to Jefferson Lab. Despite the impressive agreement between theory and experiment in the plot, physicists have yet to fully harness QCD to compute all possible properties of quarks, gluons, and the particles they compose.

Advancing QCD with Lattice Calculations

Ortega-Gama's Ph.D. Research at William & Mary

During his Ph.D. studies at William & Mary, Ortega-Gama leveraged the university's strong collaboration with Jefferson Lab to resume working with Raúl Briceño and engage with Jozef Dudek, a senior scientist holding a joint appointment at both institutions, to deepen his understanding of QCD.

Breakthrough in Pion Reactions: Unifying Spacelike and Timelike processes

Orgega-Gama, as the lead author of a lattice QCD study published in Physical Review D, uncovered a fundamental connection between two pion-mediated processes previously thought to be distinct.

Computational Synergies in QCD Analysis

Understanding Spacelike vs. Timelike processes

The spacelike process involves an electron being scattered off a pion, while the timelike process occurs when an electron and its antiparticle collide and produce two pions upon annihilation.

"Although these two processes appear distinct at first glance," Dudek explained, "they are governed by the same fundamental physics. Their Feynman diagrams are essentially rotated versions of one another. Felipe's work demonstrates their connection through a unified calculation at the level of quarks, and gluons."

Unifying Spacelike and Timelike Reactions

This computational approach successfully unifies the description of both spacelike and timelike processes, highlighting the inherent interconnectivity of QCD-governed reactions. While experimental observations previously hinted at this relationship, it is now firmly supported by mathematical validation.

The Challenges and Innovations of QCD Calculation

Addressing Computational Constraints in QCD Research

Ortega-Gama's prior research provided the foundation for this groundbreaking calculation. In experimental settings, post-collision particles travel outward indefinitely until they are detected, effectively reaching a 'theoretical infinity' beyond the strong interaction's influence. In numerical calculations, however, computational constraints necessitate confining these particles within a finite volume, only marginally larger than the strong interaction's effective range.

"This presents a challenge—how can we effectively relate the constrained results obtained from a finite computational box to the infinite-volume outcome observed in experimental detectors?" Ortega-Gama explained.

Collaboration and Advancements in QCD Formalism

Developing a Mathematical Formalism for Finite-Volume Calculations

Briceño, Dudek and other experts in the field have developed a mathematical formalism—an analytical approach that ensures finite-volume numerical calculations can be extended to predict infinite-volume outcomes.

Ortega-Gama's Role in Advancing QCD Formalism

Ortega-Gama, working alongside Briceño, advanced this formalism to enable the calculation of form factors for hadrons that, in contrast to the pion, decay via the strong interaction.

Building a Strong Research Foundation through Mentorship

Collaborative Work with Briceño and Dudek

"Felipe had already produced remarkable formalism papers before this publication," Dudek noted. "In our field of lattice QCD, the most accomplished researchers are those who excel in both theoreticla formalism and numerical computations. Felipe demonstrates exceptional skill in both domains at the highest level."

Weekly Collaboration and Knowledge Sharing

As Ortega-Gama's Ph.D. advisor, Dudek held weekly meetings with him throughout the project to refine calculations and exchange ideas.

Ortega-Gama said, "At each stage of the calculation, I could collaborate with him, allowing us to tailor the code to our study's specific needs."

Interrelations in Nuclear Physics: The Hadron Spectrum Collaboration

Leveraging Collaborative Research Resources

Senior members of the Hadron Spectrum (HadSpec) collaboration, Dudek and Briceño, contribute to lattice QCD computations of hadronic properties, with Ortega-Gama leveraging the collaboration's computational infrastructure.

Ortega-Gama noted that this project emerged through discussions with various members of the collaboration.

Contributions from Robert Edwards and Optimizing Codebases

HadSpec member Robert Edwards, a staff scientist at Jefferson Lab's Theory Center, has developed an extensive suite of codes that optimize lattice QCD calculations. Ortega-Gama utilized both this codebase and Edward's expertise in his research.

Advancing Career and Moving Forward in QCD Research

Ortega-Gama's Postdoctoral Role at UC Berkeley

As a result of these collaborations, Ortega-Gama has advanced to his current role as a postdoctoral scholar at the University of California, Berkeley, where he began in September 2024. He continues his work on QCD calculations alongside Briceño, now a professor at UC Berkeley.

The Role of Significant Research Projects in Career Advancement

"Having such a significant research project played a crucial role in easing the transition from Ph.D. student to postdoctoral scholar," Ortega-Gama remarked.

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New Study Unveils Overlooked Nuclear Force That Stabilizes Matter

Kyushu University Researchers Discover  Three-Nucleon Force's Role in Nuclear Stability

Researchers at Kyushu University, have uncovered how the three-nucleon force within an atom's nucleus influences nuclear stability. Their study in Physics Letter B sheds light on why certain nuclei are more stable and offers insights into astrophysical processes, such as the formation of heavy elements in stars.

The Nucleus: The Heart of Atomic Matter

Atoms, the fundamental constituents of matter, serve as the building blocks of the universe. The majority of an atom's mass is concentrated in its minuscule nucleus, which consists of protons and neutrons, collectively termed nucleons. For over a century, a key focus in nuclear physics has been understanding the interactions between these nucleons that ensure nuclear stability and maintain a low-energy state.

The Two-Nucleon Force: The Strongest Nuclear Interaction

The strongest nuclear interactions is the two-nucleon force, which acts as an attractive force at long range, drawing two nucleons together, while repelling them at short range to prevent excessive proximity.

The Complexity of the Three-Nucleon Force

"Researchers have gained a solid understanding of the two-nucleon force and its influence on nuclear stability," say Tokuro Fukui, Assistant Professor at Kyushu University's Faculty of Arts and Science. "However, the three-nucleon force, involving interactions among three nucleons at once, remains far more complex and not yet fully understood."

Illustrating the Nuclear Forces with a Game of Catch

Fukui illustrates nuclear forces by comparing them to a game of catch. In the case of the two-nucleon force, two nucleons interact by tossing a ball, which represents a subatomic particle called a meson. The meson's mass varies, with the pion, the lightest meson, being responsible for the long-range attraction between nucleons.

The Three-Nucleon Force: A More Complex Interaction

In the case of the three-nucleon force, three nucleons interact, passing mesons or balls between them. Simultaneously, while tossing and catching the mesons, the nucleons also spin and orbit within the nucleus.

Recent Research Highlights the Importance of the Three-Nucleon Force

While the three-nucleon force has traditionally been regarded as less significant than the two-nucleon force, recent research is increasingly recognizing its importance. This new study elucidates the mechanism by which the three-nucleon force contributes to nuclear stability, showing that its influence strengthens as the nucleus increases in size.

Advanced Research Methods: Supercomputer Simulations and Nuclear Theory

Through their research, Fukui and his team used advanced nuclear theory and supercomputer simulations to analyze the exchange of pions between three nucleons. They identified that two pions exchanged between nucleons result in restricted movement and spin, leaving only four potential combinations. Their calculations revealed that the "rank-1 component" among these combinations is vital for nuclear stability.

Spin-Orbit Splitting and Nuclear Stability

Fukui explains that the increased stability arises from the enhancement of a phenomenon known as spin-orbit splitting. When nucleons spin and orbit in the same direction, their alignment lowers the system's energy. However, when they spin and orbit in opposite directions, the nucleons occupy a higher energy state. This results in nucleons "splitting" into distinct energy levels, contributing to the stability of the nucleus.

Simulations Show the Greater Impact on Nucleons with Opposing Spins

According to Fukui, their supercomputer simulations indicated that the three-nucleon force increases the energy of nucleons with aligned spins and orbits, but has an even greater effect on nucleons with opposing spins and orbits. This results in a broader energy gap between shells, further stabilizing the nucleus.

Implications for Heavier Elements and Fusion Processes

This effects is particularly notable in heavier nuclei with a higher number of nucleons. In carbon-12, the heaviest element studied with 12 nucleons, the three-nucleon force led to a 2.5-fold expansion of the energy gap.

Fukui states, "The effect is so pronounced that it almost equals the influence of the two-nucleon force. We foresee a stronger impact in heavier elements beyond carbon-12, which we aim to study in our upcoming research."

The Role of Three-Nucleon Force in Element Formation in Stars

The three-nucleon force may be crucial in explaining how heavy elements emerge from the fusion of lighter elements in stars. As this force intensifies in heavier nuclei, it enhances their stability by widening the energy gaps between nuclear shells.

Enhanced Stability and Its Impact on Neutron Capture

This enhanced stability makes it harder for the nucleus to capture additional neutrons, a critical step in forming heavier elements. When the nucleus contains a "magic number" of protons or neutrons that completely fill its shells, it becomes exceptionally stable, further obstructing the fusion process.

Predicting Heavy Element Formation: The Importance of Energy Gaps

"For scientists trying to predict how heavy elements form, knowing the energy gap between unclear shells is critical—something that cannot be done without understanding the three-nucleon force." explains Fukui. "For magic number nuclei, this may require generating immense energy."

Quantum Entanglement of Nucleons: A Surprising Discovery

In their final discovery, the researchers identified another unexpected impact of the three-nucleon force on nucleon spins. With just the two-nucleon force, the spin states of each nucleon can be measured separately. However, the three-nucleon force induces quantum entanglement, where the spins of two of the three nucleons exist in both states simultaneously until observe.

Quantum Entanglement and Its Implications for Quantum Computing

"Similar to electrons, nucleons can exhibit quantum entanglement, although the greater mass of nucleons introduces distinct challenges. These variations could significant implications for future research, particularly in advancing technologies like quantum computing," concludes Fukui.

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Unveiling the Mystery: New Insights into Mass Distribution in Hadrons

Introduction to Mass in Subatomic Particles

Examining the Energy and Momentum of Quarks

Scientists determine the mass of subatomic particles made of quarks by examining their energy and momentum in four-dimensional spacetime.

The Trace Anomaly and Its Role

The trace anomaly, an essential metric, ties to the energy/momentum scale dependence observed in high-energy physics.

The Importance of the Trace Anomaly in Quark Binding

How the Trace Anomaly Affects Quark Binding

Scientists posit that the trace anomaly plays an essential role in maintaining the binding of quarks within subatomic particles.

Study Insights: Calculating the Trace Anomaly

A study published in Physical Review D presented calculations of the trace anomaly for nucleons, including protons and neutrons, as well as for pions, composed of one quark and one antiquark.

The result indicate that in pions, the mass distribution closely resembles the charge distribution observed in neutrons, whereas in nucleons, it parallels the charge distribution of protons.

Scientific Goals of the Electron-ion Collider (EIC)

Uncovering the Origin of Nucleon Mass

One of the primary scientific objectives of the Electron-ion Collider (EIC) is to uncover the origin of nucleon mass.

Mapping the Mass Distribution of Quarks and Gluons

Researchers also aim to map the mass distribution of quarks and gluons within hadrons, subatomic particles like protons and neutrons, bound by the strong nuclear force.

New Methods for Calculating Mass Distribution

First-Principle Methods for Mass Distribution

The new calculations show that mass distribution can be derived numerically using first-principle methods based on fundamental physical principles.

Supporting Nuclear Physics Data Interpretation

This technique will also support scientists in interpreting nuclear physics experimental data.

Future Experiments at the Electron-Ion Collider

Investigating Nucleon Mass with Electron-Proton Scattering

Future experiments at the Electron-Ion Collider (EIC) at Brookhaven National Laboratory aim to investigate the origins of nucleon mass. These experiments will utilize electron-proton scattering to generate heavy states that probe the proton's internal structure, focusing on gluon distributions.

Analyzing Scattering Data to Understand Mass Distribution

Scientists analyze scattering data to determine how quarks and gluons contribute to the proton's mass distribution, a method comparable to using X-ray diffraction to uncover DNA's double-helix structure.

Insights and Future Directions

Aligning with the Standard Model

These calculations align with the Standard Model and shape the design of upcoming experiments.

The Significance of the Pion's Structure

The results provide valuable insights into the mass distribution within particles such as nucleons and pions. They emphasize the pion's significance in connecting two Standard Model characteristics: the presence of an absolute scale and the asymmetry between left- and right- handed elements.

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Exploring ¹⁰⁰Sn: Strong Evidence for its Rare Doubly Magic Properties

Introduction

New experiments at CERN have provided valuable insights into the nuclear characteristics of atomic nuclei, which make up the majority of atomic mass. A major focus has been on understanding Tin-100 (¹⁰⁰Sn), a rare isotope with an equal number of protons and neutrons—50 each.

Magic Numbers in Nuclear Physics

In nuclear physics, these particular counts of protons and neutrons are termed 'magic numbers.' This designation indicates that the isotope possesses fully filled proton and neutron shells, resulting in an exceptionally stable nuclear configuration.

Breakthrough Findings on Tin-100

A team of researchers from MIT, the university of Manchester, CERN, KU Leuven, and other institutions recently presented compelling evidence indicating that Tin-100 (¹⁰⁰Sn) exhibits a doubly magic nucleus. Published in Nature Physics, their findings pave the way for groundbreaking research to test and refine nuclear theories.

Challenges in Understanding Tin-100

Dr. Jonas Karthein, lead author of the paper, "Exploring the nuclear properties near Tin-100 (¹⁰⁰Sn)—believed to be the heaviest doubly magic nucleus with equal proton (Z=50) and neutron (N=50) numbers—has posed a significant challenge for both experimental and theoretical nuclear physics for many years."

"In recent decades, numerous experimental campaigns at leading radioactive beam facilities worldwide have focused on studying isotopes near Tin-100 (¹⁰⁰Sn)."

Isotopes like Tin-100 (¹⁰⁰Sn), with extremely short lifetimes (around one second or less), must be synthesized artificially. Consequently, physicists have only managed to produce them at very low rates, leading to conflicting and inconclusive findings about their structure in past studies.

Advancements in Experimental Techniques

Investigating Nuclear Structure

"Before our study, there was little experimental understanding of the changes in nuclear size and shape as we approach Tin-100 (¹⁰⁰Sn)," remarked Karthein.

"Indium isotopes (Z=49), possessing only one fewer proton than tin, serve as an excellent platform for investigating the evolution of nuclear structure properties near Tin-100 (¹⁰⁰Sn). Recent advancements in indium isotope production at CERN, coupled with our progress in highly sensitive laser spectroscopy, have facilitated the initial measurements in proximity to ¹⁰⁰Sn."

Significant Progress in Nuclear Theory

Recent years have seen notable progress in nuclear theory concerning heavy isotopes like ¹⁰⁰Sn. By gathering extensive experimental evidence regarding the electromagnetic characteristics of ¹⁰⁰Sn, Karthein and his colleagues have confirmed certain theoretical predictions while creating a stringent standard for the advancement of nuclear models.

Prof. Ronald Garcia Ruiz, a co-author of this study, explained, "The recent advancements in the Collinear Resonance Ionization Spectroscopy (CRIS) experiment at CERN-ISOLDE, along with the production of exotic indium isotopes at the facility, enabled us to conduct precision laser spectroscopy on the atomic energy levels of the indium atom, allowing for the extraction of their nuclear electromagnetic properties."

Implications of the Research

Examining Neutron Number Variability

By examining short-lived indium nuclei with varying neutron numbers in comparison to their stable counterparts, we successfully investigated how nuclear shape and size evolve with changes in neutron number, ranging from the naturally occurring isotopes ¹¹³In and ¹¹⁵In to the neutron-deficient ¹°¹In and the neutron-rich ¹³¹In.

Confirming Doubly Magic Nature of ¹⁰⁰Sn

The results obtained by the researchers provide compelling evidence for the doubly magic nature of ¹⁰⁰Sn, a phenomenon predicted by contemporary nuclear theories but not yet definitively confirmed through experimental data. In addition, Karthein and his team conducted comprehensive nuclear calculations employing advanced methodologies, which clarified the structural characteristics of ¹⁰⁰Sn atomic nuclei.

Karthein remarked, "Our results strongly indicate the doubly magic nature of ¹⁰⁰Sn, delivering essential experimental data that aids in elucidating this crucial region of the nuclear chart and resolving inconsistencies from spectroscopy studies across various international facilities. The relatively simple structure of these nuclear systems provides an ideal framework for advancing our theoretical insights into atomic nuclei."

Future Research Directions

The recent work conducted by this research team has the potential to pave the way for significant new directions in the study of atomic nuclei. For example, it will inform forthcoming experiments at large-scale and next-generation research facilities, such as the U.S. Department of Energy's Facility for Rare Isotope Beams (FRIB).

Upcoming Initiatives

These initiatives will facilitate highly precise investigations of ¹⁰⁰Sn and its neighboring isotopes, further illuminating their nuclear properties. Additionally, they will provide theoretical physicists the opportunity to evaluate current theories and models of nuclei in extreme regions far from stability.

Karthein indicated that the CRIS collaboration at CERN intends to push these measurements further into the neutron-deficient isotopes ⁹⁹In and ¹⁰⁰In. He added that the recent independent mass measurements obtained at CERN-ISOLDE highlight the critical need to examine their nuclear electromagnetic properties.

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First Coherent Representation of Atomic Nucleus: Uniting Quarks and Gluons in Nuclear Physics

Introduction to the Atomic Nucleus

The atomic nucleus consists of protons and neutrons, whose existence arises from the interaction of quarks bound together by gluons. One might assume, then, that recreating all the properties of atomic nuclei observed in nuclear experiments using only quarks and gluons would be straightforward. Yet, it is only recently that physicists, including those at the Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Krakow, have achieved this.

Historical Context

Discovery of Protons and Neutrons

Nearly a century has passed since the discovery of the key components of atomic nuclei: Protons and Neutrons. At first, these particles were believed to be indivisible. However, in the 1960s, it was proposed that at sufficiently high energies, protons and neutrons would expose their internal structure--quarks bound together by gluons.

Confirmation of Quarks

Shortly thereafter, the existence of quarks was experimentally confirmed. It is therefore surprising that, despite the many decades that have passed, quark-gluon models have been unable to replicate the results of nuclear experiments at low energies, where only protons and neutrons are visible in atomic nuclei.

Recent Breakthrough

Overcoming the Impasse

This enduring impasse has only recently been overcome, as detailed in a paper published in Physical Review Letters. The principal authors are researchers from the international nCTEQ collaboration on quark-gluon distributions, including members from the Institute of Nuclear Physics of the Polish Academy of Sciences (IFJ PAN) in Krakow.

Unifying Distinct Frameworks

Up to now, atomic nuclei have been described in two separate frameworks:

• One involving protons and neutrons observable to low energies.
• Another at high energies, focusing on quarks and gluons.

In our study, we succeeded in unifying these previously distinct realms, explains Dr. Aleksander Kusina, one of the three IFJ PAN theorists involved in the research.

Methodology

Observing Atomic Nuclei

Humans observe their surroundings through their eyes, which serve as innate detectors, capturing photons scattered from the atoms and molecules in the objects around them. In much the same way, physicists gain insights into atomic nuclei by colliding them with smaller particles and carefully examining the collision results.

The Role of Charged Elementary Particles

For practical purposes, physicists do not use electrically neutral photons but rather charged elementary particles, typically electrons. Experimental results demonstrate that, at low energies, atomic nuclei behave as though they consist of nucleons (protons and neutrons), while at high energies, partons (quarks and gluons) within the nuclei become "visible."

The outcomes of colliding atomic nuclei with electrons have been reasonably well modeled by assuming nucleons alone for low-energy collisions and partons for high-energy ones. However, a unified description combining these two models has yet to be achieved.

Research Findings

High-Energy Collision Data Analyzing

In their research, physicists from IFJ PAN analyzed high-energy collision data, including that obtained from the LHC accelerator at CERN in Geneva. Their primary aim was to explore the partonic structure of atomic nuclei at high energies, described by parton distribution functions (PDFs).

Understanding Parton Distribution Functions (PDFs)

Parton distribution functions (PDFs) are employed to illustrate the distribution of quarks and gluons within partons, neutrons, and the atomic nucleus as a whole. Utilizing these PDF functions, researchers can experimentally ascertain measurable parameters, such as the likelihood of a particular particle being produced during collisions between electrons or protons and the nucleus.

Theoretical Innovations

Extension of Parton Distribution Functions

The theoretical innovation presented in this paper lies in the adept extension of parton distribution functions, drawing inspiration from nuclear models that describe low-energy collisions. In these models, partons and neutrons are treated as forming strongly interacting pairs of nucleons, such as proton-neutron, proton-proton, and neutron-neutron combinations.

Results of the Study

This innovative approach enabled the researchers to ascertain parton distribution functions for the 18 atomic nuclei examined, as well as the distributions of partons in correlated nucleon pairs and the quantities of these correlated pairs.

The results validated the well-established observation from low-energy experiments that proton-neutron pairs constitute the majority of correlated pairs, especially notable in heavy nuclei like gold and lead.

Conclusion

Advancements in Theoretical Modeling

The method proposed in this paper enhances the description of experimental data, outperforming conventional techniques for assessing parton distributions in atomic nuclei.

"We improved our model to better simulate the pairing of certain nucleons, as we identified this effect's relevance at the parton level. This advancement resulted in a conceptual simplification of the theoretical description, allowing for more precise future studies of parton distributions in individual atomic nuclei," explains Dr. Kusina.

Bridging High and Low-Energy Characteristics

The alignment between theoretical predictions and experimental data indicates that, for the first time, the parton model, alongside high-energy data, has successfully replicated the behavior of atomic nuclei, previously understood only through nucleonic descriptions and low-energy collision data. The outcomes of this research provide fresh insights into the atomic nucleus's structure, bridging its high- and low-energy characteristics.

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