physics of spirals entropy universal order

The Physics of Spirals: How Entropy Shapes Nature's Fundamental Design

Introduction: From Chaos to Order

In pivotal moments of human intellect, a single insight can radically reshape our perception of reality. In such moments, chaos transform into order, disarray coalesces into meaning, and what once appeared as randomness becomes a universe governed by unseen patterns.

The Bekenstein Bound: A Fundamental Insight

The Bekenstein bound stands as a fundamental revelation, hinting that entropy, information, and gravity are not distinct entities but rather interconnected facets of the universe. In a profound breakthrough, Jacob Bekenstein proposed that the entropy of any physical system is fundamentally limited by its energy and the smallest sphere that can enclose it.

Entropy as a Fundamental Aspect of Spacetime

This insight was groundbreaking: entropy, once though to be merely an abstract measure of disorder, was revealed as a fundamental aspect of spacetime itself. Bekenstein's bound, in its simplest expression, proposed that the total information contained within a given region of space is directly proportional to its energy and spatial extent.

Extending the Bound: Raphael Bousso's Contribution

In the ensuring years, efforts were undertaken to extend this bound and express it within a more universal framework. Raphael Bousso, through a refined formulation, proposed that entropy should be fundamentally constrained by the area of the enclosing sphere rather than its energy. This conclusion emerged from the gravitational stability condition, ensuring that a system's Schwarzschild radius never surpasses its enclosing boundary.

The Holographic Principle and Spacetime Geometry

This formulation maintained mathematical consistency and further solidified the profound relationship between entropy and the geometry of spacetime. His bound seamlessly aligned with the holographic principle, which posits that the informational content of a volume is encoded on its enclosing surface.

Limitations of Bousso's Approach

Although Bousso's approach remained consistent with Bekenstein's inequality, it did not represent the bound in its most precise form. By substituting energy with the enclosing sphere's area, it overlooked a critical dynamical aspect of entropy's connection to spacetime. A more rigorous formulation must retain energy as the fundamental parameter, reflecting its defining role in the bound.

Refining the Bekenstein Bound: A Novel Approach

In our refinement of the Bekenstein bound, published in Classical and Quantum Gravity, we adopt a novel approach—one that preserves total energy while reformulating it in terms of relativistic mass.

Expressing the Bound in Terms of Mass

Utilizing Einstein's relation, E=Mc², we express the bound in terms of mass. Recognizing that mass in gravitational physics is inherently linked to the Schwarzschild radius, we subsequently replace it with its corresponding gravitational radius.

Redefining the Geometry of Entropy

By implementing this seemingly minor yet profound adjustment, we redefine the very geometry of the bound. No longer confined to a spherical enclosure, entropy is now framed within a torodial structure, with the Schwarzschild radius forming the inner boundary and the smallest enclosing sphere maintaining its role as the outer limit.

The Torodial Structure: A Natural Blueprint

This transformation is not incidental; rather, it is grounded in the intrinsic patterns that pervade the cosmos. Nature rarely adheres to perfect spheres, instead favoring dynamic structures such as spirals, vortices, and torodial flows.

Observations in Nature

• Galaxies do not manifest as flawless spheres; instead, they unfurl into intricate spirals.
• DNA does not extend in a linear fashion; rather, it elegantly coils into a double helix.
• Water, air, and plasma—even in the most extreme astrophysical environments—move along curved, rotational trajectories.

Should entropy, one of the universe's most fundamental organizing principles, deviate from this pervasive pattern?

Quantum Mechanics and the Toroidal Representation of Entropy

The toroidal representation of entropy unveils a remarkable insight when examined through the lens of quantum mechanics.

Reinterpreting Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle

In conventional quantum theory, Heisenberg's uncertainty principle is framed as an inequality, imposing an inherent limit on knowledge, However, when entropy is reinterpreted within the toroidal structure, this constraint transforms—longer an inequality, but an exact relationship:

Δx Δp = (Atorus) / (4π ℓpl2) ħ

The Deep Order Beneath Quantum Mechanics

This elegantly simple yet deeply profound equation reveals that what we once perceived as uncertainty is, in reality, an intrinsic structure. The seeming randomness of quantum mechanics is not a flaw in nature but an encoded signature of a deeper order.

The reformation of the uncertainty principle from an inequality to an equality implies that space and time are not smoothly continuous, but instead, governed by toroidal constraints.

The Cosmological Implications of Toroidal Entropy

The implications of this realization reach beyond physics, redefining our perception of the cosmos:

• The toroidal motion of hurricanes
• The undulating forms of ocean waves
• The structured flows of electromagnetic fields
• The dynamics of subatomic interactions

All adhere to this foundational principle. The spiral is not an incidental shape but a fundamental blueprint woven into the fabric of reality. More than a mere geometric form, the torus encapsulates the essence of motion, transformation, and the progression of time itself.

Addressing the Cosmological Constant problem

From a cosmological standpoint, this perspective provide a compelling framework for addressing the cosmological constant problem. The persistent gap between field theory's predictions of vacuum energy and its observed magnitude has remained one of physics' most elusive puzzles.

Self-Regulation of Vacuum Energy

Yet, when the toroidal entropy bound is applied to quantum vacuum calculations, this inconsistency dissolves. This indicates that the universe's vacuum energy may be intrinsically self-regulated by its toroidal geometry, potentially redefining our conception of dark energy.

The philosophical Perspective: Embracing Dynamism

The significance of this insight transcends physics, reaching into the philosophy of knowledge itself.

Rigid Frameworks vs. Adaptive Understanding

For centuries, human understanding has been shaped by rigid framework and fixed definitions, seeking certainty in absolute truths. Yet, the universe resists such rigidity—it flows, curves, and evolves.

Just as reality is dynamic, so too must our conception of knowledge remain adaptable, open to refinement and reinterpretation.

Conclusion: The Universe as a Spiral of Order

Bekenstein's seminal insight provided a foundation, and Bousso's refinement brought it closer to universality. Yet, the fundamental nature of entropy, measurement, and spacetime may not reside in either formulation alone, but rather in the toroidal symmetry that unifies them.

The deeper we probe, the more evident it become that the universe is not a rigid construct, but a dynamic, evolving interplay—governed by spirals, curves, and vortices spanning all scales, from the quantum to the cosmic.

Within this realization lies an undeniable beauty—a deep reverence for nature's elegance and the quiet symmetry of a universe that, despite its vast complexity, adheres to an unyielding harmony. Perhaps this is the true pursuit of physics—not merely the mechanics of existence, but the revelation of its intrinsic poetry.

A Final Reflection

If there is one fundamental insight to be drawn from this, it is that the universe is neither chaotic nor dictated by blind randomness. Beneath its vast complexity lies an order—one woven into the rotation of galaxies, the orbits of electrons, and the very fabric of time itself.

This is an invitation to look deeper, to acknowledge that the cosmos does not merely exist but moves, breathes and spirals.

Perhaps, in the end, the true purpose of knowledge is not to conquer the unknown, but to stand in reverence of its structure—to recognize that even in uncertainty, a deeper order prevails, one we are only beginning to grasp.

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The universe is not a chaotic mess but a masterpiece of spirals, curves and evolving structures. From quantum mechanics to cosmic formations, entropy shapes the very fabric of reality. Want to dive deeper into the mysteries of science, technology and the cosmos? Explore more fascinating insights at:

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Physicists Achieve Stable Superconductivity at Ambient Pressure

Breakthrough in Ambient-Pressure Superconductivity

Researchers at the University of Houston's Texas Center for Superconductivity have reached another groundbreaking milestone in their pursuit of ambient-pressure high-temperature superconductivity, advancing the quest for superconductors that function in real-world conditions and paving the way for next-generation energy-efficient technologies.

Investigating Superconductivity in Bi₀.₅Sb₁.₅Te₃ (BST)

Research by Liangzi Deng and Paul Ching-Wu Chu

Professors Liangzi Deng and Paul Ching-Chu of the UH Department of Physics investigated the induction of superconductivity in Bi₀.₅Sb₁.₅Te₃ (BST) under pressure while preserving its chemical and structural properties, as detailed in their study, "Creation, stabilization, and investigation at ambient pressure of pressure-induced superconductivity in Bi₀.₅Sb₁.₅Te₃" published in the Proceeding of the National Academy of Sciences.

Link Between Pressure, Topology, and Superconductivity

"The idea that high-pressure treatment of BST might reconfigure its Fermi surface topology and enhance thermoelectric performance emerged in 2001," Deng stated. "That intricate relationship between pressure, topology and superconductivity drew our interest."

Challenges in High-Pressure Superconductors

Metastable States and Practical Limitations

"As materials scientist Pol Duwez once observed, most industrially significant solids exist in a metastable state," Chu explained. "The challenge lies in the fat that many of the most intriguing superconductors require high pressure to function, making them difficult to analyze and even more challenging to implement in real-world applications."

Deng and Chu's innovation offers a solution to this pressing issue.

The Pressure-Quench Protocol (PQP) - A Key Innovation

Deng and Chu pioneered the pressure-quench protocol (PQP), a method introduced in an October UH news release, to stabilize BST's superconducting states at ambient pressure—removing the necessity for high-pressure environments.

Significance of This Discovery

A Novel Approach to Material Phases

Why is this significant? It introduces a novel approach to preserving valuable material phases that typically require high-pressure conditions, enabling both fundamental research and practical applications.

Evidence of High-Pressure Phase Stability

"This experiment provides clear evidence that high-pressure-induced phases can be stabilized at ambient pressure through a delicate electronic transition, without altering symmetry," Chu stated. "This breakthrough opens new possibilities for preserving valuable material phases typically confined to high-pressure conditions and could aid in the quest for superconductors with higher transition temperatures."

Exploring New States of Matter

"Remarkably, this experiment unveiled a groundbreaking method for identigying new states of matter that neither naturally exist at ambient pressure nor emerge under high-pressure conditions," Deng noted. "It underscores PQP's potential as a powerful tool for mapping and expanding material phase diagrams."

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Physicists at the University of Houston have unlocked a new path to stable superconductivity at ambient pressure, paving the way for next-generation energy-efficient technologies. This revolutionary advancement could transform materials science, energy storage, and beyond.

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Scientists Create Invisible Electric Wire Using Sound Waves

The Role of Electric Sparks in Technology

Electric sparks play a crucial role in welding, electronic, germ elimination and fuel ignition in certain car engines. However, despite their utility, they are difficult to control in open environments, often splitting into erratic branches that naturally gravitate toward nearby metallic objects.

Breakthrough in Electricity Transport Through Air

Researchers have discovered a way to transport electricity through air using ultrasonic waves, as detailed in a recent Science Advances study. This innovation enables controlled spark movement, allowing for obstacle navigation and precise targeting, even on insulating materials.

Scientific Discovery and Experimentation

Dr. Asier Marzo, lead researcher at the Public University of Navarre, stated, "We discovered this phenomenon more than a year ago, but it took months to control it and even longer to uncover the scientific explanation behind it."

How Ultrasound Controls Electric Sparks

This directional control happens as the sparks heat the surrounding air, causing it to expand and become less dense. Ultrasonic waves then channel the heated air toward regions of higher sound intensity, guiding subsequent sparks along these low-density pathways due to their reduced breakdown voltage.

Applications of Controlled Sparks

"The precise manipulation of sparks paves the way for applications atmospheric sciences, biological processes and controlled circuit activation," says Prof. Ari Salmi from the University of Helsinki.

Advancements Over Traditional Methods

Previously, guiding sparks relied on laser-induced discharges, commonly referred to as 'electrolasers,' which necessitated high-powered lasers and precise timing between the laser pulse and electric discharge. This new approach, utilizing ultrasound instead of laser, ensures:

• Safety for both eyes and skin
• Compact and affordable equipment
• Continuous operation feasibility

Future Potential of Contactless Electricity Transport

"I find it exciting to explore the use of extremely faint sparks for generating precise tactile sensations in the hand, which could lead to the development of the first contactless Braille system," says Josu Irisarri, lead author from the Public University of Navarre.

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Revolutionary Third Class of Magnetism Unveiled: Transforming Digital Memory Technologies

Introduction to Altermagnetism and Its Significance

For the first time, scientists have captured images of altermagnetism, a newly discovered class of magnetism, which holds promise for next-generation magnetic memory devices with significantly enhanced speeds.

What is Altermagnetism?

Altermagnetism represents a unique magnetic order characterized by antiparallel alignment of individual magnetic units, with each unit hosted within a structure that is rotationally offset from its neighbors.

Groundbreaking Research from the University of Nottingham

Researchers from the University of Nottingham's School of Physics and Astronomy have demonstrated the existence and controllability of this novel third class of magnetism in microscopic devices, with their findings featured in Nature.

Insights from Professor Peter Wadley

Professor Peter Wadley, the lead researcher, describes altermagnets as magnetic moments aligned anti-parallel to their neighbors, with each crystal segment rotated relative to the others. "It's akin to anti-ferromagnetism with a twist." he explains, "but this slight variation has profound implications."

Impact on Magnetic Memory and Microelectronics

Magnetic materials form the backbone of most long-term computer memory and modern microelectronics. While this industry is critical and expansive, it also contributes significantly to global carbon emissions. Introducing altermagnetic materials as replacements for key components could dramatically enhance speed and efficiency while reducing reliance on rare and hazardous heavy elements central to traditional ferromagnetic technologies.

Advantages of Altermagnetic Materials

Altermagnets integrate the advantageous characteristics of both ferromagnets and antiferromagnets into one material, offering the promise of a thousandfold boost in microelectronic and digital memory speeds, coupled with enhanced durability and energy efficiency.

Insights from the Research Team

Senior Research Fellow and study co-author Oliver Amin, who led the experiment, remarked, "Our experimental work has connected theoretical ideas to real-world applications, potentially paving the way for altermagnetic materials in practical technologies."

The Experimental Setup at MAX IV International Facility

The experimental research was conducted at the MAX IV international facility in Sweden, a synchrotron resembling a massive metallic doughnut, which accelerates electrons to generate X-rays.

High-Resolution Imaging with X-rays

Using X-rays to illuminate the magnetic material, the electrons ejected from its surface are detected through a specialized microscope, enabling the production of high-resolution images of the material's magnetism, including features as small as the nanoscale.

The Role of Alfred Dal Din in Altermagnet Research

Alfred Dal Din, a Ph.D. student, has spent the last two years investigating altermagnets, marking this latest discovery as another significant milestone in his project.

Personal Reflections from Alfred Dal Din

He reflects, "Being one of the first to observe the effects and properties of this promising new class of magnetic materials during my Ph.D. has been both an incredibly rewarding and challenging privilege."

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first-search-sueps-13-tev-cms-collider

Soft Unclustered Energy at 13 TeV: A First Search in Proton-Proton Collisions

Introduction to Hidden Valley Models and SUEPs

Many physics studies aim to experimentally uncover exotic phenomena extending beyond the Standard Model (SM), as outlined by theoretical frameworks. Among these are hidden valley models, which propose a dark sector where particles interact via a strong, dark force. These models predict particles and interactions with unique decay characteristics.

CMS Collaboration's Groundbreaking Search for SUEPs

In a recent publication in Physical Review Letters, researchers from the CMS (Compact Muon Solenoid) collaboration at CERN reported the results of the first search for soft unclustered energy patterns (SUEPs), a unique signal predicted by hidden valley models in high-energy particle collisions.

SUEPs and Their Role in Extending the Standard Model

"SUEPs belong to a broader class of theories aimed at extending the Standard Model to address unresolved phenomena in universe, such as dark matter and matter-antimatter asymmetry," said Luca Lavezzo of the CMS search team in an interview with Phys.

Theoretical Foundations of Hidden Valley Models

Specifically, these phenomena are among the predictions derived from hidden valley theories. Introduced nearly two decades ago by Matt Strassler and Kathryn Zurek, these theories propose a "Dark Sector" distinct from the Standard Model, characterized by its own strong, confining force, analogous to the Standard Model's strong force that binds quarks and gluons into hadrons such as protons and neutrons.

Challenges in Validating Hidden Valley Predictions

Many of the fascinating predictions made by hidden valley models have yet to undergo experimental validation. When these theories were first proposed, the technological limitations of the time rendered searches for the predicted dark sectors impractical, deferring such efforts to future studies.

Revisiting Hidden Valley Theories with Colliders

"Several years ago, as interest in investigating complex dark sectors grew within the scientific community, theorists and experimentalists revisited the unusual predictions of hidden valley theories, realizing that some could now be explored using colliders," said Lavezzo.

New Search Strategies for SUEPs and Other Phenomena

Soft unclustered energy patterns (SUEPs), semivisible jets, and emerging jets represent the initial set of searches aimed at validating specific predictions from hidden valley models, all published within the last few years.

Characterizing SUEPs in High-Energy Collisions

Hidden valley models suggest that high-energy particle collisions might produce distinct signatures, such as SUEPs, characterized by numerous low-momentum particles arranged in a spherical pattern within particle colliders like those used in the CMS experiment.

Challenges in Identifying SUEPs in Collider Events

"This is a highly distinct signature compared to Standard Model predictions. However, identifying a SUEP in a typical collider event is challenging due to the presence of several dozen simultaneous collisions, each generating numerous low-energy particles," Lavezzo explained.

Refining Trigger Mechanisms to Capture SUEP Events

"Additionally, our trigger mechanisms—criteria determining which proton—proton collisions are deemed noteworthy—are specifically configured to capture events involving high-energy particles, making it challenging to select those with naturally low energy."

New Strategies in Search of SUEPs

To overcome the challenges that hindered previous searches for these particles, the CMS Collaboration first ensured that the particle responsible for generating a SUEP—acting as the 'Portal' between the Standard Model and Hidden Valley models—recoiled against an SM particle, specifically a jet in their experiment. This recoil results in an event where both particles exhibit substantial yet balanced energy, enabling the event to be triggered on the SM jet.

Differentiating Between SUEPs and Standard Model Jets

"By employing this strategy, the SUEP's structure shifts from a spherical pattern to one resembling a broader version of an SM jet—s shower of particles from a quark," explained Lavezzo.

Challenges in Comparing Predictions to Experimental Observations

"The challenge now is to differentiate between SM jets and SUEPs. However, obtaining reliable predictions through our traditional methods proves difficult in these complex environments and events, which is essential for comparing our measurements to theoretical models and determining if there is any evidence of SUEPs or if the observations align with Standard Model expectations."

Innovative Methods for Estimating SM Contributions

The CMS collaboration chose to estimate the contribution of SM events directly from the data they gathered during their search. This was done by utilizing the extended-ABCD method, a method that helps assess the SM contribution in the signal region.

Successful Exclusion of SUEP Theorie's Phase Space

"We are the first team to conduct a search for SUEPs at colliders, and we successfully excluded a significant portion of the available phase space for SUEP theories. Additionally, we've established a set of methods that we hope will be further developed in future studies," stated Lavezzo. "The response from theorists, including Matt Strassler who originally proposed SUEPs, was incredibly positive. They were excited about our experimental findings, as it opens the door for testing more hypotheses."

Future Directions and Open Questions in SUEP Research

The recent search undertaken by this research group has provided new constraints that will inform future strategies for detecting SUEPs in particle colliders. Hidden Valley models suggest that SUEPs should be fully visible, meaning that all dark sector particles decay to Standard Model particles. However, this assumption may not necessarily apply.

The Possibility of Stable, Undetectable, SUEPs

"SUEPs may decay into the Standard Model after a certain lifespan, or some could remain stable and undetectable, leading to distinct signatures that previous searches might have missed," explained Lavezzo. "Further focused searches could be conducted in areas where our approach was not optimized; notably, low-mass portals remain largely unconstrained.

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semi dirac fermions zrsis physics breakthrough

Physicists Observe Directional Mass-Only Particle for the First Time

Introduction to the Discovery of Semi-Dirac Fermions

Researchers have successfully identified, for the first time, a semi-Dirac Fermion-a quasiparticle characterized by being massless in one direction and possessing mass in the other. Though hypothesized 16 years ago, it was only recently observed within a ZrSiS semi-metal crystal. This breakthrough holds promise for transformative applications in technologies such as sensors and batteries.

Researchers from Penn State and Columbia University recently unveiled their findings in Physical Review X.

The Surprise Discovery and Its Significance

Unanticipated Findings

"This discovery came as a complete surprise," said Yinming Shao, assistant professor of physics at Penn State and the study's lead author. "Our initial research was not focused on semi-Dirac ferminos, but unexpected signatures in the data led us to realize we had made the first observation of these remarkable quasiparticles, which alternately behave as if they have mass or are massless."

Understanding Massless Particles

Particles are considered massless when their energy originates entirely from motion, making them pure energy traveling at the speed of light. For instance, photons, the particles of light, are massless as they always move at light speed. Albert Einstein's special relativity states that no object with mass can achieve this velocity.

"In solid materials, the collective dynamics of numerous particles, referred to as quasiparticles, can exhibit properties distinct from those of individual particles. In this case, this phenomenon resulted in particles possessing mass in only one direction," Shao explained.

The Concept of Semi-Dirac Ferminos and Their Theoretical Origins

Theoretical Predictions

The existence of Semi-Dirac ferminos was first proposed between 2008 and 2009 by multiple research teams, including scientists from Université Paris Sud in France and the University of California, Davis. Theoretical models suggested that these quasiparticles would exhibit directional mass-shifting behavior, appearing massless along one axis while possessing mass along another.

Unexpected Observation

After 16 years, Shao and his collaborators accidentally identified the predicted quasiparticles through magneto-optical spectroscopy, a technique that uses infrared light and a strong magnetic field to study reflected light. Their goal to examine quasiparticle properties in silver-colored ZrSiS crystals.

Landau level spectroscopy provides insights into semi-Dirac fermions at the inter-section of two nodal lines within a semi-metal material. (Left: Fermi surface of a nodal-line crossing model; Right: Band structure of the material). Credit: Yinming Shao.

The Experiment and Methods Used

Magneto-Optical Spectroscopy at the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory

The experiments were carried out at the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory in Florida, which houses the world's most powerful hybrid magnet. This magnet generates a sustained magnetic field approximately 900,000 times stronger than Earth's magnetic field—strong enough to levitate small objects like water droplets.

Conducting the Experiments at Extremely Low Temperatures

The researchers reduced the temperature of a ZrSiS sample to -452°F, just a few degrees above absolute zero, before subjecting it to the lab's strong magnetic field and illuminating it with infrared light to investigate the quantum interactions within the material.

Analyzing the Unusual Results

"We were investigating how the material's electrons respond to light, focusing on their optical response," said Shao. "By analyzing the light signals, we hoped to uncover any intriguing aspects of the material's underlying physics. What are found was a mix of expected features typical of a semi-metal crystal, along with surprising phenomena that left us completely puzzled."

Uncovering the Semi-Dirac Fermion Behavior

Unexpected Magnetic Field Behavior

"When a magnetic field is applied to a material, the energy levels of its electrons are quantized into distinct Landau levels," Shao explained. "These levels are discrete, similar to climbing stairs with no intermediate steps. The spacing between them is determined by the electron's mass and the strength of the magnetic field. As the magnetic field intensifies, the energy levels should increase in fixed increments based on the electron's mass—yet, in this case, that didn't happen."

Identifying the Power Law and Collaboration with Theoretical Physicists

By utilizing the powerful magnet in Florida, the researchers discovered that the energy transitions of the Landau levels in the ZrSiS crystal exhibited an entirely unexpected relationship with the strength of the magnetic field. This distinct pattern, identified by theorists years ago as the 'B2/3 power law,' is a hallmark characteristic of semi-Dirac fermions.

Explaining the Particle Behavior

A Model for Electron Behavior in ZrSiS

To unravel the unusual behavior they observed, the experimental physicists collaborated with theoretical physicists to create a model that explained the electronic structure of ZrSiS. Their focus was on the possible paths along which electrons could move and intersect, in order to understand how electrons in the material were losing mass when traveling in one direction but not in another.

Understanding the Massless and Massive Transitions

"Picture the particle as a miniature train confined to a network of tracks, which represent the material's fundamental electronic structure," explained Shao. "At specific intersections, the particle train moves along a fast track at light speed, but when it encounters an intersection and switches to a perpendicular track, it suddenly gains resistance and mass. In this way, the particles either remain pure energy or acquire mass depending on the direction they travel along the material's 'tracks.'"

Implications for Future Technologies

The Role of ZrSiS in Emerging Technologies

The team's analysis revealed the presence of semi-Dirac fermions at the crossing points. These particles were massless when moving along a linear path but acquired mass when traveling in a perpendicular direction. Shao further explained that ZrSiS is a layered material, similar to graphite, composed of carbon atom layers that can be exfoliated into graphene sheets just one atom thick. Graphene plays a vital role in the development of emerging technologies, such as batteries, supercapacitors, solar cells, sensors, and biomedical devices.

Looking Ahead: Unresolved Questions and Future Research

"This is a layered material," said Shao. "Once we figure out how to isolate a single layer of this compound, we could harness the unique properties of semi-Dirac fermions and control them with the same precision that we do with graphene. However, the most exciting aspect of this experiment is that the data we collected cannot yet be fully explained. There are still many unresolved questions, and our focus is on understanding them."

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Unlocking the Universe: Physicists Plan a Decade of Neutrino Research to Solve Cosmic Mysteries

Introduction to Neutrino Research

Physicists are on the brink of uncovering answers to fundamental cosmic mysteries by delving deeper into the properties of subatomic particles.

Professor Alexandre Sousa of the University of Cincinnati has published a paper forecasting global neutrino research developments for the next decade.

The Importance of Neutrinos in Physics

What Are Neutrinos?

Neutrinos, the universe's most plentiful massive particles, have become a key focus for scientists seeking deeper insights into their properties.

Origins and Behavior of Neutrinos

Neutrinos are produced during nuclear fusion in the sun, radioactive decay in reactors or Earth's crust, and particle accelerator experiments. They oscillate among three distinct flavors as they travel.

The Quest for a Fourth Neutrino: The Sterile Neutrino

The Hypothesis of the Sterile Neutrino

However, unexpected experimental findings led physicists to hypothesize the existence of a fourth neutrino type, termed the sterile neutrino, which is unaffected by three of the four fundamental forces.

• "In theory, it interacts only with gravity, remaining unaffected by the weak nuclear force, strong nuclear force, or electromagnetic force," Sousa explained.

The Collaborative Effort: Snowmass 2021/2022

An Overview of the White Paper

Sousa and his collaborators address perplexing experimental anomalies in neutrino research in a white paper recently published in Journal of Physics G: Nuclear and Particle Physics. This work stems from the Particle Physics Community Planning Exercise, known as "Snowmass 2021/2022."

The Role of High-Energy Physics Experts

Every decade, experts in high-energy physics convene to shape the direction of particle physics in the U.S. and with global collaborators.

The Team Behind the Research

The paper also included contributions from UC Professor Jure Zupan, Associate Professor Adam Aurisano, visiting scholar Tarak Thakore, postdoctoral fellow Michael Wallbank, and physics students Herilala Razafinime and Miriama Rajaoalisoa.

Progress and Challenges in Neutrino Physics

Key Areas of Focus

According to Zupan, progress in the field of neutrino physics is expected to occur on various fronts.

In addition to the search for sterile neutrinos, Zupan mentioned that physicists are investigating various experimental anomalies—discrepancies between data and theoretical predictions—that will soon be tested with upcoming experiments.

The Nobel Prize and Its Implications

Gaining deeper insights into neutrinos could revolutionize our long-held views on physics. Neutrino research has already earned the highest scientific accolade, the Nobel Prize, with the discovery of neutrino oscillations awarded in 2015. Nations, including the United States, are committing billions of dollars to these initiatives due to their profound scientific significance.

Why Neutrinos Matter: Addressing Cosmic Questions

The Matter-Antimatter Dilemma

A key question in physics is why the universe contains more matter than antimatter, despite the Big Bang theoretically producing both in equal amounts. According to Sousa, neutrino research may hold the answer.

• "While it may not impact your daily life, our goal is to understand the reason for our existence," Sousa said. "Neutrinos ap pear to be central to addressing these profound questions."

Major Neutrino Research Initiatives

The Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE)

Sousa is involved in one of the most significant neutrino research initiatives, the Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE), managed by the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory. The project involves excavating the former Homestake gold mine to a depth of 5,000 feet to house neutrino detectors. Sousa noted that the elevator ride alone takes approximately 10 minutes to reach the detector chambers.

Researchers place detectors deep underground to protect them from cosmic rays and background radiation, which facilitates the isolation of particles created in experiments.

Project Overview

The experiment, scheduled to launch in 2029, will initially use two detector modules to measure atmospheric neutrinos. By 2031, Fermilab researchers will direct a high-energy neutrino beam 800 miles through Earth to the detector in South Dakota, as well as one in Illinois. the initiative involves over 1,400 international engineers, physicists, and scientists.

Technical and Scientific Goals

Sousa remarked that with these two detector modules and the most powerful neutrino beam to date, significant advancements are possible. The launch of DUNE is anticipated to be highly exciting and will be the most sophisticated neutrino experiment ever conducted.

The paper was a substantial effort, involving over 170 contributors from 118 universities and institutes, supported by 14 editors, including Sousa.

• "The project was a prime example of teamwork involving scientists from varied backgrounds. Although not always straightforward, seeing is truly gratifying," he commented.

NOvA Experiment

At the same time, Sousa and UC's Aurisano are participating in another Fermilab neutrino experiment known as NOvA, which explores the mechanisms behind neutrino flavor changes. In June, their research team shared their accurate neutrino mass measurements to date.

Hyper-Kamiokande (Hyper-K)

Hyper-Kamiokande, or Hyper-K, is another significant neutrino observatory and experiment currently being built in Japan, with operations potentially starting by 2027. It, too, seeks evidence of sterile neutrinos and explores other research questions.

Future Outlook and Collaborative Efforts

A Decade of Research and Global Participation

According to Sousa, "The combination of these findings, particularly when considered alongside DUNE, will yield highly significant results. Together, these experiments will greatly enhance our understanding. We expect to have some answers by the 2030s."

The Potential of Neutrino Physics

Zupan from UC stated that these multibillion-dollar initiatives have the potential to provide answers to fundamental questions regarding matter, antimatter, and the universe's origins.

Zupan explained that, so far, the only parameter in particle physics that has been found to have a nonzero value is connected to quark properties. The possibility of a comparable property for neutrinos is still an open and fascinating question.

The Road Ahead

Sousa mentioned that researchers globally are engaged in numerous neutrino experiments that could yield answers or spark new questions.

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